The Wait is Over: Regulations Have Been Released and Alberta’s Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Act comes into force August 29, 2022

On February 25, 2022, the Government of Alberta confirmed that the Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Act (the “PPCLA”)[1]Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Act, c P-26.4 [Prompt Payment Act]. will come into force on August 29, 2022,[2]Builders’ Lien (Prompt Payment) Amendment Act, 2020, c 30; Proclaiming the Builders’ Lien (Prompt Payment) Amendment Act, 2020, OC 50/2022. and published the long-awaited Prompt Payment and Adjudication Regulation and the Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Forms Regulation (collectively the “Regulations”).[3]Prompt Payment and Adjudication Regulation, Alta Reg 23/2022 [Prompt Payment Regulations] and Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Forms Regulation, Alta Reg 22/2022. [Forms Regulations]. As discussed in our previous post, participants and stakeholders in Alberta’s construction industry have been in a state of limbo since 2020, awaiting the coming into force of the PPCLA and the major changes it contains. Most notably, several new provisions in the PPCLA left much of the interpretive heavy lifting to the Regulations. With the coming into force of the PPCLA now confirmed and the publication of the Regulations providing necessary detail, parties can now take steps to ensure they are fully prepared for these major changes.

As outlined in our initial post from November 2020, the PPCLA will change the construction industry in four main ways, by: (i) instituting prompt payment timeline requirements; (ii) allowing for progressive release of holdbacks; (iii) creating an adjudication system; and (iv) extending the default periods for filing a lien. While the PPCLA sets out the major changes, the Regulations provide the necessary detail to fill in the gaps and make these changes functional.

The highlights from the Regulations include:

  1. New transition rules: the PPCLA provided that only contracts entered into after the PPCLA was proclaimed would be subject to the significant updates brought about by Bill 37 and Bill 62 (most notably, the prompt payment and adjudication regimes). The Regulations now provide that contracts entered into before the PPCLA is in force, but that are scheduled to remain in effect for longer than 2 years after August 29, 2022, must be amended within 2 years to indicate that they are subject to the PPCLA.
  2. Inclusion of engineers and architects: the Regulations stipulate that engineers and architects’ services are subject to the terms of the PPCLA where those services relate to an improvement.
  3. Adjudication process: details concerning the adjudication process have been given, the most salient of which is that a decision is to be made within 42 days of a notice of adjudication being filed and served (subject to an adjudicator extending the process by up to 10 days). Adjudicators will be appointed within 7 days of the adjudication notice, the claimant must submit its materials within 5 days of the adjudicator being appointed, and the respondent must submit its materials 12 days after it receives the claimants’ materials.
  4. Prescribed amount for progressive release of holdbacks: The PPCLA requires contracts which have a value over the prescribed amount to provide for a progressive release of the statutory holdback at least annually. The regulations set the prescribed amount at $10,000,000.

 

Prompt Payment Timeline

Pursuant to the PPCLA, the new prompt payment requirements are as follows:

  • the prompt payment timelines are triggered by the issuance of a “proper invoice” which must be issued by all contractors and subcontractors at least every 31 days (subject to narrow exceptions).[4]Prompt Payment Act, s. 32.1(6). Within this 31-day limitation, the Regulations stipulate that the owner and contractor may agree to specific terms as to when a proper invoice may be delivered.[5]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 3.
  • upon receipt of a proper invoice the owner must (i) dispute all or part of the proper invoice within 14 days, and (ii) pay all undisputed amounts in the proper invoice within 28 days.[6]Prompt Payment Act, ss. 32.2(1) and (2).
  • a contractor must pay its subcontractors within 35 days of issuing a proper invoice to the owner[7]Prompt Payment Act. S. 32.3(4). or within 7 days of receiving: payment from the owner or a notice of non-payment from the owner,[8]Prompt Payment Act s. 32.3(1). unless the contractor issues its own notice of non-payment to its subcontractor, or serves the owner’s notice of non-payment, together with an undertaking that the Contractor will commence an adjudication no later than 21 days from issuing the notice;[9]Prompt Payment Act, ss. 32.2(5) and (6).
  • the above payment deadlines and obligations apply down the construction pyramid, applying as between subcontractors and their sub-subcontractors.

The requirements for a “proper invoice” are set out in the PPCLA,[10]Prompt Payment Act, s. 32.1(1). whereas the Builders’ Lien Forms Amendment Regulation sets out the prescribed forms in which all notices described above must take.[11]Forms Regulations, Forms 1-14.

 

Adjudication Process

The PPCLA creates the statutory adjudication system, whereas the Regulations provide the details necessary to allow for the adjudication system to be put into place and become operational.

Unlike Ontario, the Regulations stipulate that Alberta may have multiple Nominating Authorities. Authorized Nominating Authorities will determine who will act as adjudicators by issuing a certificate of qualification to adjudicate to eligible individuals. Part 2 of the Regulations sets out eligibility requirements to become an adjudicator. The stipulated requirements include “10 years of relevant work experience in the construction sector” and “sufficient knowledge and experience” in areas including dispute resolution, contract law, adjudication process, ethics, and determination writing.[12]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 7(2). The Regulations also require ANAs to create a code of conduct which authorized adjudicators must adhere to.[13]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 10.

Further, the Regulations clarify the kinds of disputes that can be adjudicated and the rules surrounding same. With regards to the kinds of disputes that can be adjudicated, the Regulations list the following matters:

(a) the valuation of services or materials provided under the contract or subcontract;

(b) payment under the contract or subcontract;

(c) disputes that are the subject of a notice of non-payment under Part 3 of the Act;

(d) payment or non-payment of an amount retained as a major lien fund or minor lien fund and owed to a party during or at the end of a contract or subcontract, as the case may be; and

(e) any other matter in relation to the contract or subcontract, that the parties in dispute agree to, regardless of whether or not a proper invoice was issued or the claim is lienable.[14]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 19.

As for the rules surrounding the adjudication, the Regulations set out the following timelines and procedures:

StepsDays from service of notice of adjudication
Deadline for parties to agree on adjudicator4
Deadline for Nominating Authority to appoint adjudicator 11
Deadline for claimant to provide its submission16 (or 5 days from appointment of adjudicator, whichever is earlier)
Deadline for respondent to provide its submission28 (or 12 days from receipt of claimant’s submission, whichever is earlier)
Deadline for adjudicator to issue order determining the dispute46 (or 30 days from receipt of claimant’s submission, whichever is earlier)

 

Progressive Release of Holdbacks

The PPCLA makes progressive releases of holdback mandatory for projects where:

  • the completion date is longer than one year, or the contract provides for payments of the holdback on a phased basis; and
  • the contract price exceeds the prescribed amount,[15]Prompt Payment Act, s. 24.1. which pursuant to the Regulations is $10,000,000.[16]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 2(2).

As stipulated in the Regulations, where a contract does not specify a phased amount, the partial release of holdback payment must be made on an annual basis.[17]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 2(1).

 

Extension of default period for Liens

The PPCLA extends, or otherwise alters, the limitation periods for filing a lien as follows:

  • for general construction, the limitation period is extended from 45 days to 60 days; and
  • for any improvement primarily relating to “the furnishing of concrete as a material” or “work done in relation to concrete” the limitation period is extended to 90 days.[18]Prompt Payment Act, s. 27(2.21). However, the Regulations state that the 90 day limitation period does not apply to entities that install or use “ready-mix concrete”, as defined in the North … Continue reading

The Regulations clarify that the 90 day lien period does not apply to “entities that install or use ready-mix concrete”,[19]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 36. which is defined as the “mixing together water, cement, sand, gravel or crushed stone to make concrete, and delivering it to a purchaser in a plastic or unhardened state”[20]North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) Canada 2017 Version 2.0, Code 32732 – Ready-Mix concrete manufacturing. This clarification suggests that the 90 day lien period would apply to concrete suppliers, or those engaged purely in preparatory activities (such as base preparation or installation of rebar), but not to the subcontractors who actually place and finish the concrete.

 

Transition Period

Any contract or subcontract entered into after August 29, 2022, will be governed by the new rules under the PPCLA and the Regulations.[21]Prompt Payment Act, s. 74(2). However, any contract entered into prior to August 29, 2022, will continue to be governed by the rules under the previous statute for a period of two-years.[22]Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 37. After the expiration of the two years, all construction contracts in Alberta will be subject to the PPCLA and the Regulations, and the new rules contained therein. While this calculus is relatively straightforward for most contracts, parties who have entered into contracts where work is scheduled to take just short of two years should consider the potential implications of any unforeseen delays on whether or not the new rules will apply.

As a result of this transition period, for the next two and a half years there will be contracts that are governed by the new rules and some governed by the old rules. Businesses and participants in Alberta’s construction industry will need to be cognisant of which rules apply to which contracts, as lien rights, payment rights and obligations, and dispute mechanisms will be significantly impacted. To this end, parties should consider reviewing and updating their contracts and internal processes to ensure contractual payment terms are consistent with the PPCLA and the Regulations.

 

Conclusion

The Regulations much needed clarity and refinement to the PPCLA, with the most substantial clarifications provided in regards to the adjudication process. The changes ushered in by the PPCLA and the Regulations are substantial. These changes will radically alter how the Alberta construction industry functions, particularly with regards to how and when parties are paid and how disputes are settled.

With proclamation of the PPCLA and the Regulations, it is incredibly important to have competent counsel with a deep understanding of construction law and the prompt payment and adjudication regime to ensure your business is prepared to thrive in this new legislative environment. The lawyers at McCarthy Tétrault have extensive experience in the construction industry and can help you navigate this complex legislative scheme.

References

References
1 Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Act, c P-26.4 [Prompt Payment Act].
2 Builders’ Lien (Prompt Payment) Amendment Act, 2020, c 30; Proclaiming the Builders’ Lien (Prompt Payment) Amendment Act, 2020, OC 50/2022.
3 Prompt Payment and Adjudication Regulation, Alta Reg 23/2022 [Prompt Payment Regulations] and Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Forms Regulation, Alta Reg 22/2022. [Forms Regulations].
4 Prompt Payment Act, s. 32.1(6).
5 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 3.
6 Prompt Payment Act, ss. 32.2(1) and (2).
7 Prompt Payment Act. S. 32.3(4).
8 Prompt Payment Act s. 32.3(1).
9 Prompt Payment Act, ss. 32.2(5) and (6).
10 Prompt Payment Act, s. 32.1(1).
11 Forms Regulations, Forms 1-14.
12 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 7(2).
13 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 10.
14 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 19.
15 Prompt Payment Act, s. 24.1.
16 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 2(2).
17 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 2(1).
18 Prompt Payment Act, s. 27(2.21). However, the Regulations state that the 90 day limitation period does not apply to entities that install or use “ready-mix concrete”, as defined in the North American Industry Classification System.
19 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 36.
20 North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) Canada 2017 Version 2.0, Code 32732 – Ready-Mix concrete manufacturing.
21 Prompt Payment Act, s. 74(2).
22 Prompt Payment Regulations, s. 37.

Maintenance Work, Repair Work, Capital Repair Work, and Lien Rights in Canada

Introduction

I often explain the difference between non-lienable maintenance and repair work on the one hand, and lienable construction work on the other, using the analogy of a landscaper called to a worksite. In one scenario he’s asked to mow the grass and trim the hedges. In another, he’s asked to terraform the entire property, complete with a new deck, sheds, a koi pond, and a stone pathway. The first scenario is non-lienable maintenance, while the second is lienable construction.

Not every worksite, however, involves a koi pond. When dealing with (for example) heavy industrial projects or the energy sector, repair and maintenance work might involve the comprehensive replacement of very large and very expensive machinery and equipment, or massive investment in capital repairs. The difference between maintenance, repair, and construction is often less clear, and courts frequently struggle with where to draw the line. To assist you, dear reader, in making this determination, we have reviewed and summarized the current state of the law in British Columbia,[1]Builders’ Lien Act, SBC 1997, c 45 (the “B.C. Act”). Alberta,[2]Builders’ Lien Act, RSA 2000, c B-7; as of July 1, 2021, Alberta’s Builders’ Lien Act has been replaced by the Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Act, Chapter P-26.4 (the … Continue reading Saskatchewan[3]Builders’ Lien Act, SS 1984-85-86, c B-7.1 (the “Saskatchewan Act”). and Ontario.[4]Construction Act, RSO 1990, c C 30 (the “Ontario Act”).

Executive Summary

The lines of authority respecting the division between maintenance work, repair work, and construction work in Canada have generally divided into two camps: (i) emphasis on the characterization, effect or intended effect of the work in Ontario case law, or (ii) emphasis on the characterization, effect or intended effect of the overall project in B.C., Alberta, and Saskatchewan.

In Ontario, the emphasis is on the nature of the work: maintenance or repair work intended to improve the value of the land is likely lienable (as such work is considered an “improvement” under the statute), whereas work that is intended merely to maintain the status quo is likely not lienable.

In B.C., Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the emphasis is on whether the work or service is necessary or supportive for the completion of the overall project, wherein the overall project is the improvement (and the overall project includes the physical construction of a thing). To put this in perspective, if the overall project is the construction of a shopping centre, then all work and services associated with that construction are lienable, including maintenance, cleaning, inspection, security, temporary water services, the delivery of porta-potties to the site, heating and hoarding, etc.

Legislative Comparison

In each of these jurisdictions, analysis begins with the definition of an “improvement”, because for work or services to be lienable, that work or service must be provided to an improvement. In B.C, Saskatchewan, and Ontario, an improvement includes “repair” or “capital repair” to land in question; Alberta hasn’t included the same terms within its definition of same.

(a)          British Columbia

While there’s limited case law in B.C. on the lienability of maintenance work, it’s clear – given the inclusion of “repair” work in the B.C. Builders Lien Act’s definition of improvement – that repair projects (likely capital repair projects) can constitute an “improvement” and therefore sustain lien rights. Given the currently available case law in B.C., it also appears that B.C.’s courts are mostly in harmony with the developing lines of authority in Alberta and Saskatchewan.

In the 2011 case of Alexander Construction Ltd. v Al-ZaibakEyeglasses,[5]Alexander Construction Ltd. v Al-ZaibakEyeglasses, 2011 BCSC 590, 2011 CarswellBC 2349 (“Alexander Construction). the British Columbia Supreme Court needed to decide whether the lien claimant’s provision of basic inspection and maintenance work could be considered “work” within the meaning of section 1(5) of the B.C. Act, and therefore sustain lien rights that would have otherwise expired. The Court determined that while this work was “minimal”,[6]Alexander Construction at para. 66. given a liberal reading, it was still sufficient to constitute work on the larger improvement (the construction of a home). The Court noted that while the subject efforts “did not move the project any closer to conclusion, they prevented deterioration to the project that would further delay its completion.”[7]Alexander Construction at para. 66. In other words, the Court placed emphasis not on the nature or characterization of the work itself, but rather on the work’s connection to the larger overall improvement project.

In a similar line, in Shelly Morris Business Services Ltd. v Syncor Solutions Limited[8]Shelly Morris Business Services Ltd. v Syncor Solutions Limited, 2020 BCSC 2038 (“Shelly Morris”). the Supreme Court of British Columbia:

  1. noted that the definition of “improvement” is inclusive and can bear meanings other than those included in section 1 of the B.C. Act, as long as they do not subtract from the prescribed definition;[9]Shelly Morris at para. 24; quoting Boomars Plumbing & Heating Ltd. v Marogna Brothers Enterprises Ltd., 1998 CanLII 2970 (BCCA).
  2. emphasized that “improvement” means an improvement to the property itself; and
  3. held that the lien claimant must have contributed physically to the improvement of the site in question.[10]Shelly Morris at para. 30.

Both Alexander Construction and Shelly Morris are consistent with case law and statutory interpretation in Alberta and Saskatchewan, so the guidance from the jurisprudence in those provinces may be instructive for similar B.C. determinations.

(b)          Alberta

Alberta generally draws a much clearer line between physical construction of an improvement (which is lienable) and maintenance work (which is not) than jurisdictions such as Ontario. Given the absence of the terms “repair” and “capital repair” in the Alberta Act, Alberta courts have put more emphasis on the nature or characterization of the overall project rather than the effect or intended effect of the work in question.

Identification of the “improvement” in Alberta is determined by reference to the “overall project” and not the specific work being undertaken, so if nothing new is actually being physically constructed, there is likely not an improvement and thus likely no lien rights. On the other hand, if the overall project meets the definition of an improvement, then nearly any type of work or service provided to that larger project – and that is a necessary or supporting part of physical construction – will likely be lienable.

Fortunately, the Alberta Court of Queen’s Bench provided clear guidance on the specific circumstances in which maintenance will and will not be lienable in the 2021 case of Young EnergyServe Inc v LR Ltd,[11]LR Processing Partnership,Young EnergyServe Inc v LR Ltd, LR Processing Partnership, 2021 ABQB 101 (“Young EnergyServe”). where it dealt with the question of repair and maintenance work during a turnaround project at a gas processing plant.

In finding that a filed lien was not valid, the Court held that “the cleaning, repairing, and relining the interior of tanks and pressure vessels and replacing old or faulty piping and pressure valves are not directly related to the process of construction” and that “[t]hose activities are more appropriately characterized as being in the nature of maintenance.”[12]Young EnergyServe at para. 67.

First, the Court acknowledged that the recent approach taken in Alberta is to consider an “improvement” from the perspective of the “overall project”:

There is no evidence to suggest that the Turnaround Project was a component of a larger construction project on the Mazeppa Lands. In particular, there is no evidence: (i) that the overall project in this case was any broader than the Turnaround Project; or (ii) that the Turnaround Project was a component of the construction of the Mazeppa Power Plant.

I mention this point for context because the Alberta Courts considers “improvement” from the perspective of the “overall project” involved: Re Davidson Well Drilling Limited, 2016 ABQB 416 at para 79 [Davidson Well Drilling]. Based on the facts underlying this case, the Work under the Turnaround Project was not part of an overall project to build a structure on the Mazeppa Lands: see Trotter and Morton Building Technologies Inc v Stealth Acoustical & Emission Control Inc, 2017 ABQB 262 (Master Prowse) at paras 54, 55, and 58. […][13]Young EnergyServe at paras. 30, 31.

The Court noted that both the Supreme Court of Canada and the Alberta Court of Appeal have held that, in order to establish lien rights, a claimant must first strictly comply with the relevant statutory pre-requisites to the creation of the right. However, courts are then entitled to liberally interpret other matters dealt with in that statute. In this case, there was no evidence that the project in question was a component of the overall project to build a new structure on the lands.

Second, the Court reiterated and summarized the Alberta case law, which draws a clear distinction between work involved in the construction of an improvement versus subsequent maintenance, stating:

Alberta courts have determined that services must be directly related to the creation or construction of an improvement to entitle the provider to a lien under the Alberta BLA. As a result, the Courts in this province have, as a rule, rejected claims related to the maintenance and the remediation of lands.

The Alberta Court of Appeal has reinforced this interpretative approach by commenting that when assessing whether an applicant and the work it performs fall within the terms of the Alberta BLA, the proper approach is to give a strict interpretation to the relevant provisions: see Calgary Landscape at paras 13-19. That appellate Court was cited, and it stated that “[a]lthough it is clear that services need not be physically performed upon the improvement to fall with the meaning of the [Alberta BLA] they must […] be directly related to the process of construction”: Hett v Samoth Realty Projects Limited, 1977 ALTASCAD 120 (CanLII), 3 Alta LR (2d) 97 at para 25 (CA); see also Leduc Estates Ltd v IBI Group, 1992 CanLII 6104 (AB QB) at para 34.

In adopting this interpretation, the Alberta Court of Appeal confirmed that while services need not be physically performed for the improvement to fall within the meaning of the [Alberta Act], they must be directly related to the process of construction. As a result, the Alberta Courts have drawn a clear distinction between the work involved in the construction of an improvement as part of the construction process on a building site and the subsequent maintenance. As held in Calgary Landscape the former is “obviously related to ‘making or constructing’ while the latter, falling in the category of maintenance, clearly is not”: at para 12.[14]Young EnergyServe at paras. 44-46. [emphasis added]

Finally, the Court addressed jurisprudence under the Ontario and Saskatchewan Acts. With respect to the Ontario version, the Court noted that it would be inappropriate to rely on its definition of “improvement” because of a clear difference in the language between the Alberta and Ontario Acts; specifically, the use of the phrase “alternation, addition or repair” in the definition of “improvement” under the Ontario Act, which is absent in the Alberta Act. With respect to the Saskatchewan version, the Court referred to Re Davidson Well Drilling Limited,[15]Re Davidson Well Drilling Limited, 2016 ABQB 416. wherein Madam Justice J.M. Ross had previously acknowledged that the definition of “improvement” under the Saskatchewan Act is virtually identical to the Alberta Act. The Court ultimately used these factors to further distinguish the definition of “improvement” under the Ontario and Alberta Acts.

(c)          Ontario

In summary of what follows below, a party in Ontario may be entitled to lien rights where the work is intended to improve the value of the land (as in the case of “capital repair” work), but not in situations where the work is intended to maintain the status quo (i.e. non-lienable maintenance work). As such, the emphasis in Ontario case law appears to be on the effect or even the ‘intended effect’ of the work, rather than characterization of the larger “overall project” as there is, for example, in Alberta and Saskatchewan.

In 310 Waste Ltd. v Casboro Industries Ltd.,[16]310 Waste Ltd. v Casboro Industries Ltd., 2005 Carswell Ont 6441 (“310 Waste”). the Ontario Superior Court of Justice (Divisional Court) dealt with an appeal by a landowner from a judgement dismissing an application to discharge a lien associated with 310 Waste Ltd.’s removal of hundreds of thousands of tires from a dumpsite owned by Casboro Industries Ltd. Casboro, as landowner, retained 310, as contractor, when it was ordered by the Ministry of Environment to remove the tires from their dumpsite. When Casboro failed to pay amounts owing for the removal of the tires, 310 registered a lien against the associated lands.

On appeal, the Court agreed with the application judge’s rationale that maintenance (such as the removal of snow) did not give rise to a construction lien.[17]310 Waste at paras. 5, 6. However, the Court also agreed with the application judge’s conclusion that the removal of the tires, which were declared “waste” and a “contaminant” within the meaning of the Environmental Protection Act,[18]Environmental Protection Act, RSO 1990, c E. 19. “clearly enhanced the value of the land” and was therefore considered an “improvement” of the land as defined by the old Ontario Act, and held the lien filed by 310 to be valid.[19]310 Waste at paras. 7, 8. The rationale used in this decision is somewhat suspect given that merely “enhanc[ing] the value of land” without more (i.e. physical construction) has been rejected in many other contexts as an adequate justification to establish lien rights. Albeit, removing “contamination” through the use of physical labour likely does meet the established definition of construction.

Later, in U.S. Steel Canada Inc., Re,[20]U.S. Steel Canada Inc., Re, 2016 CarswellOnt 12275. (“U.S. Steel”) the Ontario Superior Court of Justice found that the following supply of goods and services could give rise to lien rights: (i) the adding of soil and the supply of flower plants; and (ii) spraying for weeds where the contractor provided its own material; and removing weeds, spreading dirt and gravel, and installing cloth. Further, the Court went so far as to suggest that “grounds keeping” would give rise to a lien right, although this conflicts with more strict interpretations from other jurisdictions.[21]Calgary Landscape Maintenance Ltd. v Khoury Real Estate Services Ltd., 1993 CarswellAlta 75, at paras. 11 and 12.

U.S. Steel created some uncertainty for owners and contractors alike, as landscape maintenance contractors in Ontario now had a valid claim that their services could be lienable. As a means to provide clarity, the Ontario legislature passed the Construction Lien Act Amendment Act,[22]Construction Lien Act Amendment Act, SO 2017, c 24 – Bill 142. on December 12, 2017. Subsequently, on July 1, 2018, changes to the definition of “improvement” came into effect under the new, renamed Ontario Act, which succeeded the old Ontario Act.

Where the old Ontario Act defined improvement to include “any alteration, addition or repair to the land”, the new Ontario Act specifies “capital repair” instead of “repair” to the land. These amendments were based on recommendations from an extensive report prepared by the Ontario government in 2016[23]Striking the Balance: Expert Review of Ontario’s Construction Lien Act: see https://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/about/pubs/cla_report/. which addressed the distinction between repairs and maintenance by making reference to the Income Tax Act.[24]Income Tax Act, RSC 1985, c.1 (5th Supp.). Specifically, the report indicated that while capital repairs are intended to improve the land, “maintenance” is intended to maintain the original condition of the land and is not intended to form part of an “improvement”, and therefore does not result in a lien right.[25]Sections 2.1.1 and 2.3 of Striking the Balance: Expert Review of Ontario’s Construction Lien Act. This distinction puts the emphasis in Ontario on the effect or intent of the work (i.e. improvement, addition, “value-add” etc.), whereas Alberta and Saskatchewan courts are more interested in the nature of the labour, and whether it’s best characterized as actual physical construction or mere maintenance.

(d)          Saskatchewan

The question of lienability of maintenance work has not been dealt with as directly in Saskatchewan as it has in Alberta and Ontario. As always, whether maintenance work is lienable will depend on whether such work contributes to the “improvement” of the lands in question.

In Crescent Point Energy Corp. v DFA Transport Ltd.,[26]Crescent Point Energy Corp. v DFA Transport Ltd., 2019 SKQB 189 (“Crescent Point v DFA”). the Saskatchewan Court of Queen’s Bench considered, among other things, whether service hauling of various fluids to or from well sites constituted an “improvement” under the Saskatchewan Act and could therefore result in valid lien rights. Crescent Point was an Alberta partnership carrying on business in Saskatchewan in the exploration, production, sales and marketing of petroleum, natural gas and related hydrocarbons. DFA Transport was a Saskatchewan transport company that supplied Crescent Point with various fluid hauling services.

When Crescent Point ceased payments, claiming overbilling, DFA Transport filed an action and application to compel Crescent Point to pay all outstanding amounts and notified Crescent Point of a Claim of Lien registered against their interests in Saskatchewan.

The parties agreed that DFA Transport’s work included:

  • Production hauling: transporting water or oil from well sites to processing facilities or disposal sites;
  • Service hauling: transporting water, kill fluid, and other liquids to or from well sites or battery sites in connection with maintenance and repairs to wells or batteries performed by third parties; and
  • Completion hauling: transporting water to well sites to fill frac storage tanks and transporting flowback liquid away from well sites.[27]Crescent Point v DFA at para. 11.

In determining the validity of any lien rights as a result of DFA Transport’s work for Crescent Point, the Court considered whether the work constituted an “improvement” within the meaning of the Saskatchewan Act. Specifically, the Court relied on its previous decision in Points North Freight Forwarding Inc. v Coates Drilling Ltd. (Trustee of),[28]Points North Freight Forwarding Inc. v Coates Drilling Ltd. (Trustee of), [1992] 3 WWR 152 (Sask QB). which held that if a person provides a service which has a direct and real contribution to the construction of an improvement, that person will be entitled to make a lien claim.[29]Crescent Point v DFA at para. 19.

The Court also referred to Boomer Transport Ltd. v Prevail Energy Canada Ltd.,[30]Boomer Transport Ltd. v Prevail Energy Canada Ltd., 2014 SKQB 368. where it had previously held that services that included, inter alia, the pumping out and hauling of water on a continuous basis, where that water was required to be extracted from an oil-water mixture being pumped from the ground through an oil well head, were an integral part of the production of oil for market and thus met the definition of a lienable claim.

Given the foregoing, the Court ultimately held that DFA Transport’s Claim of Lien was valid because, by servicing Crescent Point’s well sites and transporting fluids to and from the well sites, such services were an “improvement” under the Saskatchewan Act.[31]Crescent Point v DFA at para. 26.

Post Script

Posts on this website take many forms, from brief blog posts to deep-dive features which eventually form the foundation for updates to one or more of my books. This post is, obviously, of the latter variety. If you want (even more) up-to-date analysis on this topic and others, I suggest subscribing to (or purchasing a physical copy of) Heintzman, West and Goldsmith on Canadian Building Contracts, 5th Edition.

References

References
1 Builders’ Lien Act, SBC 1997, c 45 (the “B.C. Act”).
2 Builders’ Lien Act, RSA 2000, c B-7; as of July 1, 2021, Alberta’s Builders’ Lien Act has been replaced by the Prompt Payment and Construction Lien Act, Chapter P-26.4 (the “Alberta Act”).
3 Builders’ Lien Act, SS 1984-85-86, c B-7.1 (the “Saskatchewan Act”).
4 Construction Act, RSO 1990, c C 30 (the “Ontario Act”).
5 Alexander Construction Ltd. v Al-ZaibakEyeglasses, 2011 BCSC 590, 2011 CarswellBC 2349 (“Alexander Construction).
6 Alexander Construction at para. 66.
7 Alexander Construction at para. 66.
8 Shelly Morris Business Services Ltd. v Syncor Solutions Limited, 2020 BCSC 2038 (“Shelly Morris”).
9 Shelly Morris at para. 24; quoting Boomars Plumbing & Heating Ltd. v Marogna Brothers Enterprises Ltd., 1998 CanLII 2970 (BCCA).
10 Shelly Morris at para. 30.
11 LR Processing Partnership,Young EnergyServe Inc v LR Ltd, LR Processing Partnership, 2021 ABQB 101 (“Young EnergyServe”).
12 Young EnergyServe at para. 67.
13 Young EnergyServe at paras. 30, 31.
14 Young EnergyServe at paras. 44-46.
15 Re Davidson Well Drilling Limited, 2016 ABQB 416.
16 310 Waste Ltd. v Casboro Industries Ltd., 2005 Carswell Ont 6441 (“310 Waste”).
17 310 Waste at paras. 5, 6.
18 Environmental Protection Act, RSO 1990, c E. 19.
19 310 Waste at paras. 7, 8.
20 U.S. Steel Canada Inc., Re, 2016 CarswellOnt 12275. (“U.S. Steel”)
21 Calgary Landscape Maintenance Ltd. v Khoury Real Estate Services Ltd., 1993 CarswellAlta 75, at paras. 11 and 12.
22 Construction Lien Act Amendment Act, SO 2017, c 24 – Bill 142.
23 Striking the Balance: Expert Review of Ontario’s Construction Lien Act: see https://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/about/pubs/cla_report/.
24 Income Tax Act, RSC 1985, c.1 (5th Supp.).
25 Sections 2.1.1 and 2.3 of Striking the Balance: Expert Review of Ontario’s Construction Lien Act.
26 Crescent Point Energy Corp. v DFA Transport Ltd., 2019 SKQB 189 (“Crescent Point v DFA”).
27 Crescent Point v DFA at para. 11.
28 Points North Freight Forwarding Inc. v Coates Drilling Ltd. (Trustee of), [1992] 3 WWR 152 (Sask QB).
29 Crescent Point v DFA at para. 19.
30 Boomer Transport Ltd. v Prevail Energy Canada Ltd., 2014 SKQB 368.
31 Crescent Point v DFA at para. 26.

Saving Paper Could Cost You – Potential Perils of Incorporating Terms by Reference: Razar Contracting Services Ltd v. Evoqua Water

Why this decision matters

Commercial agreements frequently incorporate or make reference to separate documents that form part of the larger bargain. This practice is known as “incorporation by reference”, and in the construction industry often involves the incorporation of language from prime or “head” contracts into subcontracts. In Razar Contracting Services Ltd. v Evoqua Water (“Razar Contracting”),[1] Razar Contracting Services Ltd. v Evoqua Water, 2021 MBQB 69.  the Manitoba Court of Queen’s Bench dealt with such language and refused to give effect to an arbitration clause located on the Defendant’s website, which the Defendant referenced in the purchase order it issued. Razar Contracting tells a cautionary tale about attempting to incorporate standard terms and conditions into a transaction merely by referencing where those terms can be found.

While the Court in Razar Contracting was more detailed in its dealing with the specific issues of jurisdiction to determine the existence of the alleged arbitration clause and the interpretation of same, the focus of this article is on the larger application of the Court’s findings regarding incorporation by reference.

In a world where contracts are increasingly negotiated, transmitted and executed electronically, businesses who rely on incorporating terms and conditions to their transactions without specifically including the terms themselves in the exchanges with the counterparty will want to consider what steps they can take to ensure that they can demonstrate their terms and conditions (i) have been brought to the other party’s attention; and (ii) were knowingly accepted.

Key Facts

Razar Contracting involved a dispute between a contractor, Evoqua Water Technologies Canada Ltd. (“Evoqua”), and a mechanical subcontractor, Razar Contracting Services Ltd. (“Razar”). The contractual relationship between the parties was formed after Razar responded to a bid package issued by Evoqua which included a form of subcontract with certain conditions. When Razar was awarded the contract, Evoqua simply issued a purchase order that stated that the terms and conditions of purchase that was located on its website applied to the purchase order unless otherwise agreed to in writing; Evoqua also provided a link to the website.[2]Ibid, at para. 6.

Razar’s president attested that he attempted, without success, to access the website. He made no further attempts, believing the form of subcontract in the bid documents would be executed.  However, that did not come to pass.[3]Ibid, at para 7.

Razar commenced an Action at the Manitoba Court of Queen’s Bench regarding unpaid invoices and claims for delay and impact costs. Evoqua brought an application to stay Razar’s Action, arguing that the terms and conditions on its website contained an arbitration clause which required all disputes between the parties to be resolved by an arbitral tribunal seated in Pittsburgh, PA, administered by JAMS.

The Court’s Analysis

The Application was formally brought pursuant to Article 8 of the Model Law On International Commercial Arbitration (“Model Law”),[4]The Model Law is in force in Manitoba pursuant to the International Commercial Arbitration Act, C.C.S.M. c. C151 (“ICAA“). Interestingly, the Court noted that both parties’ written … Continue reading which provides that on an application by a party, the court “shall” refer the parties to arbitration “unless it finds that the agreement is null and void, inoperative or incapable of being performed”.

The Court was asked to consider two main issues, which for the purpose of this article are addressed in reverse: (1) whether there was a valid and binding arbitration agreement, and (2) whether the Court had jurisdiction to rule on the validity or effectiveness of the arbitration agreement.[5]Ibid, at para. 13.

Issue 1 – Is There a Valid and Binding Arbitration Agreement?

Having taken jurisdiction of the matter for the reasons detailed further below, Kroft J. applied a balance of probabilities standard and found that no arbitration agreement was formed in the circumstances either for the purposes of the Model Law (which requires arbitration agreements to be in writing)[6]Model Law Article 7(2). or at common law.

In assessing whether an arbitration agreement was formed for the purposes of the Model Law, Kroft J. noted that under Article 7(2) of the Model Law, an agreement in writing could be found, among other ways, in acknowledgements in pleadings, or in “an exchange” of telecommunications that provide a record of the agreement.[7]Model Law Article 7(2). Kroft J. dismissed the argument that defining the purchase orders as the “Agreement” in the Statement of Claim signified Razar’s agreement to the terms and conditions on Evoqua’s website.

Examining the evidence concerning the formation of the agreement between the parties, Kroft J. noted that there was no “exchange” of communication between the parties where they both acknowledged and agreed to the arbitration clause, and held that such an exchange was required by the plain language of Article 7(2) of the Model Law to form an arbitration agreement.

Additionally, Kroft J. applied common law contractual formation principles and held that there was no meeting of the minds regarding the agreement to arbitrate. In so doing, Kroft J. took a high level view of the facts and circumstances surrounding the formation of the contractual relationship. Kroft J. noted that Evoqua was seeking to impose the terms outlined on its website, despite the fact that the bid documents had in fact contemplated an attached subcontract agreement with its own special conditions.[8]Ibid. Further, Kroft J. was persuaded that at the time of bidding, the president of Razar had not seen the terms and conditions that Evoqua sought to enforce, nor did the Court find evidence that Evoqua had taken adequate steps to draw those terms and conditions to Razar’s specific attention.[9]Ibid.

Having found no binding arbitration agreement, Evoqua’s application for a stay of the action in favour of arbitration was denied.

Issue 2 – Does the Court Have Jurisdiction in the First Instance?

Citing the seminal Supreme Court of Canada decision of Dell Computer Corp. v. Union des consommateurs[10]Dell Computer Corp. v. Union des consommateurs, 2007 SCC 34. [“Dell”], Evoqua had argued that the Manitoba Court did not have the jurisdiction to rule on the existence or validity of the arbitration agreement, as that jurisdiction lay with the arbitral tribunal in the first instance. Dell confirmed the applicability of the competence-competence principle in Canada (the arbitrator has the competence to rule on its own competence)[11]Stated differently, the jurisdiction to determine the scope of its own jurisdiction. and further established the “general rule” that challenges to an arbitrator’s jurisdiction “must be resolved first by the arbitrator”, subject to questions of law or questions of mixed fact and law that require only superficial consideration of the evidence.[12]Dell Computer Corp. v. Union des consommateurs, 2007 SCC 34 at paras 84-86.

Razar sought to distinguish Dell, relying on a 2009 British Columbia Supreme Court case, H & H Marine Engine Service Ltd. v. Volvo Penta of the Americas, Inc.[13]H & H Marine Engine Service Ltd. v. Volvo Penta of the Americas, Inc., 2009 BCSC 1389. [“H & H Marine”], which suggested that Dell was limited in application to arbitration issues arising under the Civil Code of Québec, and that the applicant needs to tender an evidentiary or statutory basis for the application of the competence-competence principle.

Justice Kroft relied on H & H Marine, and found that Evoqua had failed to tender evidence pertaining to the JAMS arbitration rules to establish the competence-competence principle would apply to the arbitral tribunal in Pittsburgh, PA. Justice Kroft also noted that in the event Dell applied, this case fell within the exceptions articulated in Dell, as the facts were not in dispute and the question before the Court required a legal conclusion, not material findings of fact. As such, Kroft J. found that the Court had the jurisdiction to consider whether there was an arbitration agreement and that the Court ought to exercise that jurisdiction.

Commentary

Regarding the interpretation of the contract generally, the Court’s consideration of whether the terms incorporated by reference actually formed part of the agreement stands as an interesting 21st century twist on the so-called “battle of the forms”.[14]See Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd. v Ex-Cell-O Corp (England) Ltd. [1977] EWCA Civ 9. What is consistent with this long line of authority is the underlying question of whether the terms and conditions have been specifically drawn to the attention of the seller.

Razar Contracting stands as an example of the difficulty a party may have establishing that such attention has been ensured when the terms and conditions are located outside of the main agreement and indeed may not have even been reduced to paper. While not explicitly referenced in Kroft J.’s decision, Razar Contracting is in keeping with the general trend that an arbitration clause in one contract is only incorporated into another contract if that clause is clearly and specifically referenced. In this way, some courts appear to have applied a more stringent level of scrutiny where the proposed term is an arbitration clause in particular. For example, in Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc.,[15]Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc., (1996), 25 C.L.R. (2d) 259, 1996 CarswellOnt 16 (Ont. Gen. Div.) Chapnik J. held that “[i]ncorporation of an arbitration clause can only be accomplished by distinct and specific words …”,[16]Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc. (1996), 25 C.L.R. (2d) 259, 1996 CarswellOnt 16 (Ont. Gen. Div.) at para. 11 [emphasis added].ultimately finding that “the manifest intention of the parties, as reflected on the face of the subcontract document, was not to include the arbitration clause therein; in the alternative, the matter was overlooked and cannot now be imposed upon the parties in the absence of agreement between them.”[17]Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc. (1996), 25 C.L.R. (2d) 259, 1996 CarswellOnt 16 (Ont. Gen. Div.) at para. 15. Similarly, in Sunny Corner Enterprises Inc. v. Dustex Corp.,[18]Sunny Corner Enterprises Inc. v. Dustex Corp., 2011 NSSC 172. Kennedy C.J.S.C. held that a “general incorporation of the prime contract into the subcontract will not normally include the arbitration clause.”[19]Sunny Corner Enterprises Inc. v. Dustex Corp., 2011 NSSC 172 at para. 39 [emphasis added]. See also Heintzman, West and Goldsmith on Canadian Building Contracts, 5th Edition at § 4:23. Incorporation … Continue reading While Kroft J. perhaps does not go as far, he nonetheless held “that the reference in Evoqua’s purchase order to a website showing multiple categories of terms and conditions with no real guidance does not amount to a written arbitration agreement […]”.[20]Razar Contracting Services Ltd. v Evoqua Water, 2021 MBQB 69 at para. 33.

More broadly, the British Columbia Supreme Court provided a valuable summary of the notice and accessibility considerations regarding the incorporation of terms and conditions through an external website in its decision in Kobelt Manufacturing Co. v. Pacific Rim Engineered Products (1987) Ltd.:[21]Kobelt Manufacturing Co. v. Pacific Rim Engineered Products (1987) Ltd., 2011 BCSC 224.

In an appropriate case it might be that parties, especially sophisticated commercial actors, would be taken to know that terms and conditions are found on a website. It is now commonplace for companies to have internet websites which allow for electronic transactions. However, in order for terms and conditions on an internet website to be within the common understanding of the parties and part of their contract, there should be some evidence that those parties had interacted through the use of their websites, not just by email, or at least had notice of the terms and conditions on the other’s website at the time of entry into contract. There must also be evidence that those terms and conditions were posted on the website at the requisite time. It would be inappropriate to simply imply notice of terms absent any evidence that the website had been used before or that reasonable steps were taken to bring the existence of that website, and specifically the terms and conditions contained therein, to the attention of the other party prior to the contract.[22]Kobelt Manufacturing Co. v. Pacific Rim Engineered Products (1987) Ltd., 2011 BCSC 224 at para. 124. See also Centre intégré universitaire de santé et de services sociaux du … Continue reading

Finally, with respect to the alleged arbitration process, the Court’s conclusion that the general rule of systemic referral to arbitration articulated in Dell need not apply in the circumstances is surprising, both legally and on the facts of the case. Dell has been followed by courts across common law Canada numerous times, including in Manitoba.[23]See for instance, Uber Technologies Inc. v Heller, 2020 SCC 16 where the Supreme Court of Canada confirmed that the framework from Dell Computer Corp. applies in Ontario based on the “similarities … Continue reading Also surprising is the Court’s decision not to address Article 16 of the Model law in the decision, as this provides for the application of the competence-competence principle for a tribunal subject to the Model Law.[24]On account of conflicts of laws principles, foreign law is to be assumed to be the same as the law of the forum unless specifically pled and proven otherwise: Old North State Brewing Co v Newlands … Continue reading Instead, the Court opted to recognize its discretionary jurisdiction afforded by Dell.

References

References
1 Razar Contracting Services Ltd. v Evoqua Water, 2021 MBQB 69.
2 Ibid, at para. 6.
3 Ibid, at para 7.
4 The Model Law is in force in Manitoba pursuant to the International Commercial Arbitration Act, C.C.S.M. c. C151 (“ICAA“). Interestingly, the Court noted that both parties’ written submissions were premised on the domestic Arbitration Act, CCSM c A120, applying. The application of the ICAA was only addressed in oral argument where both parties acknowledged that the ICAA applied.
5 Ibid, at para. 13.
6 Model Law Article 7(2).
7 Model Law Article 7(2).
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Dell Computer Corp. v. Union des consommateurs, 2007 SCC 34.
11 Stated differently, the jurisdiction to determine the scope of its own jurisdiction.
12 Dell Computer Corp. v. Union des consommateurs, 2007 SCC 34 at paras 84-86.
13 H & H Marine Engine Service Ltd. v. Volvo Penta of the Americas, Inc., 2009 BCSC 1389.
14 See Butler Machine Tool Co Ltd. v Ex-Cell-O Corp (England) Ltd. [1977] EWCA Civ 9.
15 Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc., (1996), 25 C.L.R. (2d) 259, 1996 CarswellOnt 16 (Ont. Gen. Div.)
16 Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc. (1996), 25 C.L.R. (2d) 259, 1996 CarswellOnt 16 (Ont. Gen. Div.) at para. 11 [emphasis added].
17 Dynatec Mining Ltd. v. PCL Civil Constructors (Canada) Inc. (1996), 25 C.L.R. (2d) 259, 1996 CarswellOnt 16 (Ont. Gen. Div.) at para. 15.
18 Sunny Corner Enterprises Inc. v. Dustex Corp., 2011 NSSC 172.
19 Sunny Corner Enterprises Inc. v. Dustex Corp., 2011 NSSC 172 at para. 39 [emphasis added]. See also Heintzman, West and Goldsmith on Canadian Building Contracts, 5th Edition at § 4:23. Incorporation by Reference, which notes that in the United Kingdom, this rule is sometimes referred to as the “rule in Aughton” after the decision in Aughton Ltd. (formerly Aughton Group Ltd.) v. M.F. Kent Services Ltd. (1991), 57 B.L.R. 1, 31 Con. L.R. 60 (Eng. C.A.).
20 Razar Contracting Services Ltd. v Evoqua Water, 2021 MBQB 69 at para. 33.
21 Kobelt Manufacturing Co. v. Pacific Rim Engineered Products (1987) Ltd., 2011 BCSC 224.
22 Kobelt Manufacturing Co. v. Pacific Rim Engineered Products (1987) Ltd., 2011 BCSC 224 at para. 124. See also Centre intégré universitaire de santé et de services sociaux du Centre-Sud-de-l’Île-de-Montréal c. Oracle Canada, 2017 QCCS 6377 at para. 75, where Peacock J.S.C. commented on specific notice and accessibility issues and held: “Here, the Plaintiff could not find the external document by simply visiting www.oracle.com/contracts. The title of the document on the website was not the same as the one provided in the purchase order, a series of steps were required to reach the document, and the French version was only accessible if the English title happened to be found.”
23 See for instance, Uber Technologies Inc. v Heller, 2020 SCC 16 where the Supreme Court of Canada confirmed that the framework from Dell Computer Corp. applies in Ontario based on the “similarities between the arbitration regimes in Ontario, British Columbia and Quebec.” (at para 35). See also Wardrop v Ericsson Canada Inc., 2021 MBQB 183, and Buffalo Point Development Corp. Ltd. v. Alexander et al, 2012 MBQB 341.
24 On account of conflicts of laws principles, foreign law is to be assumed to be the same as the law of the forum unless specifically pled and proven otherwise: Old North State Brewing Co v Newlands Services Inc. (1998) 58 BCLR (3d) 144 at 154.

Penalty Clauses: Seven Principles Stated By The U.K. Supreme Court

The recent judgment of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom in Cavendish Square Holding BV v Talal El Makdessi is a must-read for anyone involved in contract law.

In this decision of some 132 pages and 316 paragraphs, the U.K. Supreme Court provides an exhaustive analysis of the history and policy behind one of the most contentious principles of contract law: the penalty doctrine. In doing so, the court lays to rest, at least for U.K. law, many of the contentious issues relating to the rule against penalties. This decision is bound to influence the views of Canadian courts as they wrestle with the same issues.

Under the traditional penalty doctrine of contract law, a clause in a contract which imposes a “penalty” for breach of the contract is unenforceable, while a clause which imposes a reasonable pre-estimation of damages – called “liquidated damages” – is enforceable. Because the penalty doctrine interferes with the freedom of contract –by striking down penalty clauses – it is a contentious one in modern contract law. Some commentators argue that the doctrine should be eliminated. Others argue that it should be extended to apply to all types of claims and clauses in contract law, not just those involving a breach of contract.

It was into that controversy that the U.K. Supreme Court dived in the Cavendish Square decision.

There are many elements of that decision which may be important for the development of Canadian law. However, the one that may be the most important is the conclusion of the U.K. Supreme Court that a contractual clause imposing agreed damages or repercussions on the wrongdoer is valid even if those damages are not a reasonable pre-estimate of damages, as long as they are justified by an interest of the innocent party in the performance of the contract, and are not extravagant or exorbitant.

The Background

The U.K. Supreme Court’s decision arose from two cases.

In Cavendish Square, one group of shareholders bought control of the company from the other group. The agreement between the two groups provided that if the seller breached the agreement by competing with the company whose shares were being sold, then two consequences occurred; under clause 5.1 the buyer did not have to pay the balance of the purchase price; and under clause 5.6, the buyer had the right to purchase the seller’s remaining shares at a much reduced price. In fact, the seller did breach the agreement by joining a competitor, and the buyer refused to pay the balance of the purchase price and exercised the right to buy the seller’s remaining shares at the lower price. The seller argued that those two rights amounted to unenforceable penalties because the impact of the exercise of those rights was totally disproportionate to any loss suffered by the buyer. The seller’s position was upheld in the Court of Appeal. The U.K. Supreme Court reversed that decision, holding that neither of the rights exercised by the buyer violated the penalty doctrine.

In the Parking Eye case, Parking Eye leased and operated a parking lot. Drivers could park their cars on the lot for up to two hours for free, but no longer. If they parked longer than two hours, then they had to pay £85. The idea behind this parking lot and charging system was to provide short term free parking for customers of the near-by shops, so customers could shop and park for short terms and get out of the lot and other customers could then come in. Mr. Beavis parked longer than two hours and when he was charged this amount, he argued that the charge was a penalty, saying that the charge was totally disproportionate to any loss suffered by Parking Eye due to his over-staying the two hours. His position was not accepted by the Court of Appeal or the U.K. Supreme Court.

Decision of the U.K. Supreme Court

Anyone interesting in the penalty doctrine should read this decision, so I am going to take this opportunity to set out what, in my view, are the principle issues decided by the Court:

  1. Enforcement of a remedial, or secondary, obligation

The U.K. Supreme court outlined three elements of the penalty doctrine. Under the first element, a contractual clause only falls within the rule against penalties if it imposes a secondary means of enforcing a primary contractual obligation.

The reason for this element of the rule is that the courts should not be allowing parties out of a bad deal, and the penalty doctrine does not permit them to do so. If a party enters into an “unfair” bargain, that is not a problem that the penalty doctrine can address. Lord Neuberger and Lord Sumption stated it this way:

“This principle is worth restating at the outset of any analysis of the penalty rule, because it explains much about the way in which it has developed. There is a fundamental difference between a jurisdiction to review the fairness of a contractual obligation and a jurisdiction to regulate the remedy for its breach. Leaving aside challenges going to the reality of consent, such as those based on fraud, duress or undue influence, the courts do not review the fairness of men’s bargains either at law or in equity. The penalty rule regulates only the remedies available for breach of a party’s primary obligations, not the primary obligations themselves.” This [concept]…. provided the whole basis of the classic distinction made at law between a penalty and a genuine pre-estimate of loss, the former being essentially a way of punishing the contract-breaker rather than compensating the innocent party for his breach…It is not a proper function of the penalty rule to empower the courts to review the fairness of the parties’ primary obligations, such as the consideration promised for a given standard of performance. For example, the consideration due to one party may be variable according to one or more contingencies, including the contingency of his breach of the contract. There is no reason in principle why a contract should not provide for a party to earn his remuneration, or part of it, by performing his obligations. If as a result his remuneration is reduced upon his non-performance, there is no reason to regard that outcome as penal. Suppose that a contract of insurance provided that it should be cancelled ab initio if the insured failed to pay the premium within three months of inception. The effect would be to forfeit any claim upon a casualty occurring in the first three months but it would be difficult to regard the provision as penal on that account.” (emphasis added)

Lords Neuberger and Sumption held that Cavendish Square’s claims for the non-payment of the balance of the purchase price of the shares already bought was:

“in reality a price adjustment clause…... Clause 5.1 belongs with clauses 3 and 6, among the provisions which determine Cavendish’s primary obligations, ie those which fix the price, the manner in which the price is calculated and the conditions on which different parts of the price are payable. Its effect is that the Sellers earn the consideration for their shares not only by transferring them to Cavendish, but by observing the restrictive covenants.” (emphasis added)

  1. Not a legitimate interest of the innocent party    

Second, for the clause to contravene the penalty doctrine, the impact of the clause must be one which does not fall within the innocent party’s legitimate interest under the contract. In this respect, the court has narrowed the financial consequence of a contractual provision before it will offend the penalty doctrine. As long as the financial consequence has a legitimate relationship to the contract (and is not egregious), then it will not be a penalty.

The inquiry about the legitimacy interest of the innocent party is not confined to the actual damages arising from the breach, and the amount need not be justifiable as a reasonable pre-estimation of the likely damages that will be suffered by the innocent party. Rather, the overall consequences of the breach, and other similar breaches, may justify the imposition of the amount forfeited by the clause. As Lord Neuberger and Lord Sumption said:

“ The true test is whether the impugned provision is a secondary obligation which imposes a detriment on the contract-breaker out of all proportion to any legitimate interest of the innocent party in the enforcement of the primary obligation. The innocent party can have no proper interest in simply punishing the defaulter. His interest is in performance or in some appropriate alternative to performance. In the case of a straightforward damages clause, that interest will rarely extend beyond compensation for the breach……. But compensation is not necessarily the only legitimate interest that the innocent party may have in the performance of the defaulter’s primary obligations.” (emphasis added)

Lord Hodge and Lord Mance agreed with this approach. In Lord Hodge’s view, this “broader approach escapes the straightjacket into which the law risked being placed by an over-rigorous emphasis on a dichotomy between a genuine pre-estimate of damages on the one hand and a penalty on the other.”

In the present cases, the court held that the amounts involved had a legitimate relationship to the contracts. Cavendish Square’s right not to pay the balance of the purchase price of the already purchased shares, and to pay a lower price for the to-be purchased shares, were direct consequences of the larger harm inflicted on the company, and thus the lesser value of the company to the shareholders, due to the seller’s breach of his fiduciary duty to the company. Lords Neuberger and Sumption said:

“Although clause 5.1 has no relationship, even approximate, with the measure of loss attributable to the breach, Cavendish had a legitimate interest in the observance of the restrictive covenants which extended beyond the recovery of that loss. It had an interest in measuring the price of the business to its value. The goodwill of this business was critical to its value to Cavendish, and the loyalty of Mr Makdessi and Mr Ghossoub was critical to the goodwill. The fact that some breaches of the restrictive covenants would cause very little in the way of recoverable loss to Cavendish is therefore beside the point. As Burton J graphically observed in para 43 of his judgment, once Cavendish could no longer trust the Sellers to observe the restrictive covenants, “the wolf was in the fold”. Loyalty is indivisible. Its absence in a business like this introduces a very significant business risk whose impact cannot be measured simply by reference to the known and provable consequences of particular breaches. It is clear that this business was worth considerably less to Cavendish if that risk existed than if it did not. How much less? There are no juridical standards by which to answer that question satisfactorily.”

The court arrived at a similar conclusion with respect to clause 5.6. As Lords Neuberger and Sumption said:

“[Cavendish had] an interest in matching the price of the retained shares to the value that the Sellers were contributing to the business. There is a perfectly respectable commercial case for saying that Cavendish should not be required to pay the value of goodwill in circumstances where the Defaulting Shareholder’s efforts and connections are no longer available to the Company, and indeed are being deployed to the benefit of the Company’s competitors, and where goodwill going forward would be attributable to the efforts and connections of others. It seems likely that clause 5.6 was expected to influence the conduct of the Sellers after Cavendish’s acquisition of control in a way that would benefit the Company’s business and its proprietors during the period when they were yoked together. To that extent it may be described as a deterrent. But that is only objectionable if it is penal, ie if the object was to punish. But the price formula in clause 5.6 had a legitimate function which had nothing to do with punishment and everything to do with achieving Cavendish’s commercial objective in acquiring the business.” (emphasis added)

Parking Eye’s claim to £85, while apparently egregious in relation to what might be a very minor breach of the parking limit, was reasonably related to its interest in ensuring that parkers did not overstay the parking time limit, and funding Parking Eye’s operation of the parking lot for other patrons at no cost. The very fact that it was an amount that was in terrorem was part of its legitimacy in making the whole “free-parking for a short period” system operable. Lords Neuberger and Sumption explained the situation as follows:

“The reason is that although Parking Eye was not liable to suffer loss as a result of overstaying motorists, it had a legitimate interest in charging them which extended beyond the recovery of any loss. The scheme in operation here (and in many similar car parks) is that the landowner authorises Parking Eye to control access to the car park and to impose the agreed charges, with a view to managing the car park in the interests of the retail outlets, their customers and the public at large. That is an interest of the landowners because (i) they receive a fee from Parking Eye for the right to operate the scheme, and (ii) they lease sites on the retail park to various retailers, for whom the availability of customer parking was a valuable facility. It is an interest of Parking Eye, because it sells its services as the managers of such schemes and meets the costs of doing so from charges for breach of the terms (and if the scheme was run directly by the landowners, the analysis would be no different). As we have pointed out, deterrence is not penal if there is a legitimate interest in influencing the conduct of the contracting party which is not satisfied by the mere right to recover damages for breach of contract. Mr. Butcher QC, who appeared for the Consumers’ Association (interveners), submitted that because Parking Eye was the contracting party its interest was the only one which could count. For the reason which we have given, Parking Eye had a sufficient interest even if that submission be correct. But in our opinion it is not correct. The penal character of this scheme cannot depend on whether the landowner operates it himself or employs a contractor like Parking Eye to operate it. The motorist would not know or care what if any interest the operator has in the land, or what relationship it has with the landowner if it has no interest.….

  1. Extravagant or Exorbitant Impact of the clause

Third, in order to offend the penalty doctrine the clause must impose a consequence which is out of all proportion to the second element of the test, namely any interest that the innocent party can legitimately seek to protect. Lord Mance expressed how this third element works in relation to the second element:

“There may be interests beyond the compensatory which justify the imposition on a party in breach of an additional financial burden…… What is necessary in each case is to consider, first, whether any (and if so what) legitimate business interest is served and protected by the clause, and, second, whether, assuming such an interest to exist, the provision made for the interest is nevertheless in the circumstances extravagant, exorbitant or unconscionable……the focus should be not on any particular possible breach or its timing or consequences, but on the general interest being protected, and the question whether the protection which the parties agreed can be condemned as unconscionable or manifestly excessive.” (emphasis added)

Lord Hodge explained the same elements as follows:

“ I therefore conclude that the correct test for a penalty is whether the sum or remedy stipulated as a consequence of a breach of contract is exorbitant or unconscionable when regard is had to the innocent party’s interest in the performance of the contract. Where the test is to be applied to a clause fixing the level of damages to be paid on breach, an extravagant disproportion between the stipulated sum and the highest level of damages that could possibly arise from the breach would amount to a penalty and thus be unenforceable. In other circumstances the contractual provision that applies on breach is measured against the interest of the innocent party which is protected by the contract and the court asks whether the remedy is exorbitant or unconscionable.”

Lords Neuberger and Sumption explained why Parking Eye’s charge did not infringe this element of the rule:

“None of this means that Parking Eye could charge overstayers whatever it liked. It could not charge a sum which would be out of all proportion to its interest or that of the landowner for whom it is providing the service. But there is no reason to suppose that £85 is out of all proportion to its interests.….. While not necessarily conclusive, the fact that Parking Eye’s payment structure in its car parks (free for two hours and then a relatively substantial sum for overstaying) and the actual level of charge for overstaying (£85) are common in the UK provides support for the proposition that the charge in question is not a penalty.”

  1.  Other remedies or secondary obligations may fall within the rule against penalties

The members of the court who gave reasons stated that other clauses, aside from those requiring payment of damages as a result of a breach of contract, might be subject to the penalty doctrine. They appeared to agree that withholding payments on breach, or requiring the transfer of money or property on breach, also ran afoul of the doctrine. But the members of the court do not appear to have entirely agreed as to whether, or in what circumstances, the forfeiture of instalments or deposits could be classified as penalties. Those issues did no arise in the present appeals.

  1.  Penalty doctrine should not be abolished or limited

By one side of the debate, the U.K. Supreme Court was asked to abolish the penalty doctrine as an arcane piece of old contract law that interfered with freedom of contract and made no sense in today’s world, or to limit the doctrine to commercial contracts, procedural misconduct or payment of money. The court declined to do so, and gave lengthy reasons for its decision. It basically held that the penalty doctrine: continued to fulfill a public policy purpose in eliminating unconscionable financial remedies for breach of contract; was in line with contract law in other comparable jurisdictions; and should only be eliminated by legislators after a proper inquiry which courts are not able to undertake.

  1.  Penalty doctrine should not be extended beyond breach of contract

By the other side of the debate, the U.K. Supreme Court was asked to extend the penalty doctrine so that it applied to any term of a contract that imposed an egregious or unconscionable result, whether or not the claim arose from a breach of contract. In particular, the court was asked to follow the decision in Andrews v Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd (2012) 247 CLR 205. In that decision, the Australian High Court held that the penalty doctrine applied to any clause in a contract, and not just a breach of contract, if the nature of the clause (in that case, the payment of a bank fee to process an NSF cheque) and the circumstances rendered the clause egregious or unconscionable. (See my article dated October 20, 2012 on the Andrew case)

The U.K. Supreme Court refused to follow the Andrews decision, and declined to extend the penalty doctrine beyond the field to which it has usually applied, namely as a consequence of a breach of contract. Lord Hodge said: “There is no freestanding equitable jurisdiction to render unenforceable as penalties stipulations operative as a result of events which do not entail a breach of contract. Such an innovation would, if desirable, require legislation.”

  1.  Relief from forfeiture may apply even if the penalty doctrine does not

The U.K. Supreme Court drew attention to the fact that relief from forfeiture may be available even if the clause is valid and does not infringe the penalty doctrine. Lord Mance and Lord Hodge were explicit in holding that relief from forfeiture could be granted in this situation. Lord Neuberger and Lord Sumption said that it was not necessary to decide that issue in the present appeals, but they could see the “force of the argument” to that effect.

The impact of the two rules occurs at different times. A clause is invalid under the penalty doctrine at the time the contract is written, and the actual circumstances in which it is imposed are irrelevant. Lord Neuberger and Lord Sumption stated this point as follows:

“The question whether a damages clause is a penalty falls to be decided as a matter of construction, therefore as at the time that it is agreed…. This is because it depends on the character of the provision, not on the circumstances in which it falls to be enforced. It is a species of agreement which the common law considers to be by its nature contrary to the policy of the law. One consequence of this is that relief from the effects of a penalty is….“mechanical in effect and involves no exercise of discretion at all.” Another is that the penalty clause is wholly unenforceable…”

But relief from forfeiture only occurs if, at the time a remedy is sought, the court decides that relief from forfeiture should be granted and the remedy declined. Accordingly, the penalty doctrine is “forward looking” and relief from forfeiture is “20-20 hindsight”. Again, Lord Neuberger and Lord Sumption stated the matter this way:

“What equity (and, where it applies, statute) typically considers to be contrary to the policy of the law is the enforcement of such rights in circumstances where their purpose, namely the performance of the obligations in the lease or the mortgage, can be achieved in other ways – normally by late substantive compliance and payment of appropriate compensation. The forfeiture or foreclosure/power of sale is therefore enforceable, equity intervening only to impose terms.” (emphasis added)

So a defendant may well wish to seek relief from forfeiture even if the claim against him or her arises under a valid clause which survives the rule against penalties.

Discussion

The Cavendish Square will undoubtedly fuel the debate in Canada as to whether the penalty doctrine should be abolished, extended or varied. Apart from that public policy debate, this decision is a “good news – bad news” story for those enforcing (usually owners) or defending against (usually contractors) clauses which impose consequences for breach of contract.

By stating the elements of the penalty doctrine in the way it did, the U.K. Supreme Court has greatly widened the basis upon which these clauses may be justified by the party seeking to enforce them. The traditional Canadian approach is simply to look at whether the agreed-upon damages or amounts referred to in the clause represent a reasonable pre-estimation of the damages that the innocent party would suffer from the breach of contract sued upon. According to this decision, there is a much broader basis upon which the clause may be upheld. If the clause can be justified as a reasonable basis to secure the total performance of the contract, and if the amounts or damages called for in the clause are not ridiculous in relation to that interest, then the clause is valid. In some circumstances, the innocent party may have an time demonstrating those facts than showing that the amounts or damages are a reasonable pre-estimation of damages.

On the other hand, a party defending itself against such a clause may rely on this decision to seek relief from forfeiture even though the clause is valid under the penalty doctrine. That possibility is not one that has been widely recognized in Canada.  

This decision is going into our toolbox to be used the next time we have to deal with penalty clauses.

See Heintzman and Goldsmith on Canadian Building Contracts (5th ed.), chapter 4, part 3(h) and chapter 9, part 6(j).

Cavendish Square Holding BV v Talal El Makdessi [2015] UKSC 67

Construction contract – penalty clause – liquidated damages clause – relief from forfeiture

Thomas G. Heintzman O.C., Q.C., FCIArb                                    November 29, 2015

www.heintzmanadr.com

www.constructionlawcanada.com

Does Inaction Amount To Acceptance Of A Repudiation Of Contract?

Can inaction by a party to a contract amount to an acceptance of the repudiation of the contract by the other party?  That was the issue in the very recent decision of the Ontario Court of Appeal in Brown v. Belleville (City).

This is an important issue in construction law because of the critical effect of the acceptance or non-acceptance of contractual repudiation.  The acceptance of repudiation brings the entire contract to an end.  But if repudiation is not accepted then the contract continues.  So whether there has been an acceptance of repudiation can be of pivotal importance.

If the contract has come to an end by acceptance of repudiation, then contractual performance obligation may terminate, warranty periods and limitation periods may start running, and insurance rights may start or end.  So it is vital for a builder or owner to know whether the contract has been terminated.

Yet, a builder or owner may not have the time or inclination to respond to wrongful conduct by the other side.  But if an owner or contractor doesn’t respond, can they be taken, by inference, to have accepted the wrongful conduct and brought the contract to an end?  Does an owner or contractor in effect have an obligation to respond?  Can they leave matters up in the air without specifically dealing with a repudiation by the other side?  That was the issue in Brown v. Belleville (City).

 The Factual Background

In 1953 a municipality entered into an agreement with a farmer under which the municipality agreed to maintain and repair a storm sewer drainage system that it had constructed on and near the farmer’s lands.  Six years later, the municipality stopped maintaining and repairing the drainage system.  The lands affected by the drainage system were sold by the farmer’s heirs to a third party.

In the 1980’s, that third party tried to have the municipality maintain the drainage system.  The municipality refused to do so, clearly repudiating the agreement.  In 2003, the affected lands were sold to the Browns who asked the successor municipality, Belleville, to maintain and repair the drainage system.  Belleville refused to do so and repudiated the agreement.

The Browns then sued Belleville.  Belleville defended the action and one of the positions it asserted was that the Brown’s claim was barred by the limitation period.  Belleville asserted that the repudiation by it and its predecessor municipalities had long ago been accepted by the Browns and their predecessors, in effect by inaction.  Accordingly, Belleville said that the agreement had long since terminated and the limitation period had run.

 The Court of Appeal’s decision

 The Court of Appeal started its analysis by noting that a repudiation of a contract does not, in itself, bring the contract to an end.  Only if the innocent party elects to accept the repudiation does the contract come to an end.  The innocent party is not obliged to accept the repudiation, and if he or she does not so accept then the contract continues in effect.

The Court of Appeal then stated the test to determine whether there has been an acceptance of a repudiation.  The court said that the acceptance:

“must be clearly and unequivocally communicated to the repudiating party within a reasonable time.   Communication of the election to disaffirm or terminate the contract may be accomplished directly, by either oral or written words, or may be inferred from  the  conduct  of  the  innocent  party   in  the  particular  circumstances of  the  case.”(emphasis added)

The Court of Appeal quoted from another decision in which it was said that:

“mere inactivity or acquiescence will generally not be regarded as acceptance for this purpose.  But there may be circumstances in  which  a  continuing  failure  to  perform  will  be  sufficiently unequivocal to constitute acceptance of  a repudiation.”

The Court of Appeal agreed with the trial judge that the third party’s “silence or inaction in the face of [the municipality’s] repudiation of the Agreement falls short of satisfying the requirement of clear and unequivocal communication to the repudiating party of the adoption of a repudiatory breach or anticipatory repudiation of contract.”

The mere fact that the municipality did not exercise its rights did not mean that it could not have done so, nor did it mean that the Browns or their predecessors had precluded the municipality from doing so.  The Court noted:

“the municipality did not seek access to the affected lands to carry out maintenance or repair activities does not mean that such access was unavailable.”

The Court of Appeal stated that the burden of proving an acceptance of repudiation was on the municipality and there was no evidence of such acceptance by the Browns or their predecessors in title.

Comments

This decision is another example of appellate courts in Canada sticking to the fundamental principles of contract law.  The requirement that an acceptance of repudiation must be clearly made and clearly proven means that the wrongful party cannot benefit from its own wrongful conduct and induce a termination by its own repudiation.

It may have taken a fair bit of chutzpah for the municipality to say: “we repudiated the contract, and you accepted it, didn’t you know!”   But that is the situation in which every exasperated contracting party finds itself when stuck with a contract that it has long since repudiated and wants to be rid of.  Unfortunately, it can’t unilaterally get rid of it, and the contract can go on, and on, and on, until the repudiation is accepted by the innocent party, if it ever is.

Besides being favourable to the innocent party, this state of the law protects the inactive party, the party that doesn’t have the time, inclination or resources to take the time to determine if it will accept the repudiation of the wrongful party, or simply doesn’t want to.

So, on a construction project, a serious wrong by one party does not mean that the contract comes to an end.  The law’s choice is that, in those circumstances, it is better that the contract continues and not come to an end.  It only comes to an end if the other party wants it to.

See Heintzman and Goldsmith on Canadian Building Contracts, 4th ed., chapter 1, part 4(c)

Brown v. Belleville (City), 2013 ONCA 148

Construction Contract  –  Termination  –  Repudiation  –  Acceptance  –  Limitations

Thomas G. Heintzman O.C., Q.C., FCIArb                                                         March 22, 2013

www.heintzmanadr.com

www.constructionlawcanada.com

 

An Insurance Clause Does Not Necessarily Bar A Claim By The Owner

When does an insurance clause in a construction contract bar a claim by the owner against the contractor?  Is it barred if the contract requires that the contractor obtain insurance and that the owner is to be named as an additional insured and that subrogation is waived against the owner?  That was the issue in the recent decision of the British Columbia Court of Appeal in Lafarge Canada Inc. v. JJM Construction Ltd.

The Background

The contract in question was for the charter of barges by the owner, JJM, to the charterer, Lafarge, but the principles in question appear to be no different than in a construction contract. The contract placed the sole responsibility on Lafarge for the barges’ good condition during the term of the contract.  The contract contained “insurance clauses” which required Lafarge to maintain insurance on the barges with loss payable to JJM and also required that the insurance name JJM as an additional insured and expressly waive subrogation against JJM as the owner.

When the barges were returned to JJM at the end of the contract they were damaged.  JJM repaired the barges, made a claim under the insurance and then claimed against Lafarge for the additional costs that it incurred over the insurance recovery. The parties agreed to arbitrate the claim.

In the arbitration, Lafarge argued that the “insurance clauses” barred any claim against it.  It relied upon a series of decisions of the Supreme court of Canada (Agnew Surpass v. Cummer-Yonge, Ross Southward v. Pyrotech Products, T. Eaton v. Smith and Commonwealth Construction v. Imperial Oil) and various lower court decisions which applied the principles in those decisions.

In some of those cases, claims by owners against tenants and contractors were dismissed based upon insurance clauses in which the owner had agreed to obtain insurance covering the building or project.  In other cases, the owners’ claims were dismissed based upon clauses requiring the tenant or contractor to contribute to the insurance premiums incurred by the landlord.  In both cases, the courts held that these clauses effectively passed the risk of loss to the owner, even in the presence of a general duty placed on the tenant or contractor to repair and maintain the building or project.

The arbitrator agreed with JJM that the insurance clause in question did not protect Lafarge.  The arbitrator’s decision was upheld by the British Columbia Supreme Court and Court of Appeal.

The Court of Appeal held that the prior decisions relied upon by Lafarge did not apply to the present circumstances.  Those cases involved two situations.

The first situation is a claim by the party which undertook the obligation to insure the other party.  That was the situation in each of the Supreme Court of Canada cases in which the owner, expressly or impliedly, undertook to obtain insurance on the building or project, and then sued the tenant or contractor when there was damage to the building.  The obligation to insure was express if the lease or construction contract stated that the owner would insure the building or project.  The obligation to insure was implied if the lease stated that the tenant would contribute to the insurance maintained by the landlord.  In either situation, the courts held that the owner had assumed the risk of damage to the building and could not sue the tenant or contractor.

The second situation is a subrogated claim by an insurer of the owner.  The claim may be against a tenant or contractor which was a named or unnamed insured under the insurance policy taken out by the owner.  Or the claim may be against a tenant or contractor which the owner agreed to name as an insured party in the insurance policy to be taken out by the owner, but the owner failed to take out that insurance. In both cases, the courts have held that the insurer could not maintain such a claim.

Neither situation existed here.  In this case, the claim was by the owner but the owner had not contracted to take out insurance.  Rather, it was the charterer, Lafarge, which had contracted to take out the insurance, and insurance naming the owner as an insured party.  Here, the claim was not by the insurer but by JJM for its uninsured loss after giving full credit to Lafarge for all insurance proceeds it had received.

Lafarge argued that a wider principle applied.  Effectively Lafarge was seeking to broaden the first category, namely, the implied obligation to insure arising from a contribution made by a tenant or contractor to the owner’s insurance premiums.  Lafarge argued that this implied obligation is based upon the principle that any time a party pays for insurance under a contract relating to a project or building, all claims arising from that project or building must be made under the insurance policy, and that all other claims against that party are barred.

The Court of Appeal rejected that argument.  It pointed out that Lafarge had cited no cases that supported its argument.  It also noted that, in the first category of cases on which Lafarge relied, the party suing (usually the owner) was the party which had an express or implied obligation to obtain insurance for the benefit of the other party (usually the tenant or contractor) .  In the present case, the party suing (the owner, JJM) had not undertaken to obtain insurance.  To the contrary, the party suing was the beneficiary of the insurance to be obtained by the other party.  Effectively, Lafarge was arguing that JJM should be deprived of a remedy by the very insurance that Lafarge had agreed to obtain for JJM’s benefit.

The Court of Appeal concluded that the other cases cited by Lafarge were all based upon claims made by insurers and were based upon two principles of subrogation.

First, the insurer could not sue the other party (usually the tenant or contractor) because the other party was a named or unnamed beneficiary of the policy under which the insurer had paid.  Under well known principles of insurance law, an insurer cannot bring a subrogated claim against another party insured under the same policy.

Second, another well know principle of insurance law is that the insurer has no greater subrogation rights than its insured (usually the owner).  If the owner had contracted to obtain insurance for the building or project and to name the other party (usually the tenant or contractor) as an insured and had failed to do so, then the owner had accepted the risk of damage and the insurer could be in no better position than the owner when maintaining a subrogated claim.

The present case did not fall within those principles.  JJM had not contracted to obtain insurance and the claim was not a subrogated claim.

This decision by the British Columbia Court of Appeal is a good reminder that “insurance clauses” do not necessarily create a water-tight regime which precludes claims by one party  against the other under insurance contracts.  The water-tight regime may apply to, and exclude, claims by the party (or its insurer) which agrees, either expressly or by implication, to obtain insurance on the project for the benefit of the other party.  But, without more, it may not apply to and exclude claims against the party which agreed to put that insurance in place.

The business logic of this decision is also sound.  As the Court of Appeal pointed out, it was Lafarge which arranged for the insurance, together with the terms and the deductible that resulted in JJM’s insurance claim not being paid in full.  In this circumstance, it seems only fair that Lafarge bear the risk of any uninsured shortfall.

This conclusion may have several unsettling implications for a party taking out insurance for a construction project.

First, the party agreeing to take out insurance (Lafarge in this case) undoubtedly conferred a benefit on the owner (JJM).  Wasn’t the amount of rent paid by Lafarge for the barges likely reduced, in some measure, by the cost of that insurance and the benefit conferred on JJM?  If so, isn’t that benefit akin to the contribution made by a contractor or tenant to the owner’s insurance premiums?  And if that is so, should that fact not give rise to an implied duty on JJM to accept that insurance as its sole remedy?

Second, to the extent possible owners and contractors usually want to create a water-tight insurance regime in the construction contract.  Each of them wants to ensure that the insurance regime provides the only remedies available to the other party.  How can they accomplish that result?

Clearly, this case tells us that the insurance clause and the insurance itself is not sufficient, at least so far as claims against the party which agrees to take out the insurance.  What is sufficient?  Must the contract provide that the insurance is the sole remedy of either party?  Is there any other way to create that “water-tight” regime so far as claims against the party taking out the insurance?  This case will have owners and contractors scratching their heads to come up with an answer.

See Heintzman and Goldsmith on Canadian Building Contracts (4th ed.), Chapter 5, Part 3

Arbitration  –  Construction Contract   –   Insurance  –   Subrogation

Lafarge Canada Inc. v. JJM Construction Ltd., 2011 BCCA 453

Thomas G. Heintzman O.C., Q.C.                                                                                                     February 20, 2012

www.heintzmanadr.com

How Does A Court Find And Interpret An Oral Construction Contract

Construction Contract  –  Interpretation – Oral Contract

A contract in the construction industry is usually in written form.  Often the contract will follow the CCDC form of contract.  But what principles should apply to the interpretation of oral contracts?  The British Columbia Court of Appeal recently addressed this issue in Copcan Contacting Ltd v. Ashlaur Trading Inc.

The alleged contract was for the logging of lands in British Columbia.  While the contract was not for the construction of a building, the principles that the court applied are the same that are applied to building contracts.

The parties did not agree that there was a contract, and if there was such a contract, what the terms of it were.  The plaintiff asserted that there was a contract and the defendant said that there was not.  The trial judge held that there was a contract.  An appeal was taken to the British Columbia Court of Appeal.

The parties acknowledged that the test to determine whether there was a contract was an objective test, that is, whether a reasonable bystander observing the parties would have concluded that they had made a contract.  In dealing with this question and with the question of what terms the contract (if made) contained, the Court of Appeal held that two principles applied.

 First, the Court must assume that the parties understand the business environment in which they were conducting their negotiations.  As the court said, the issue “must be viewed from the perspective of a reasonable person familiar with contracting practices in the British Columbia logging industry.”

Second, since the contract was an oral contract, the court would give a certain latitude or flexibility in determining what the terms of the contract were.  The court held that, having found there was an oral contract, the trial judge “was therefore entitled to exercise greater flexibility in the use of evidence in order to construe the contractual terms than can be utilized where the terms of the contract have been reduced to writing.”

In arriving at this latter conclusion, the Court of Appeal relied upon the reasoning in one of its prior decisions in which it had said that “this flexibility follows intuitively from the recognition that oral contracts must often be construed without the key interpretive tool used to understand written contracts – the words of the agreement.”

This decision demonstrates the inclination of a court to ensure that the reasonable expectations of the parties are not disappointed if, on the evidence, the court is satisfied that the parties made a contract.  Of course, the party asserting that a contract was made must demonstrate that fact on a balance of probabilities.  But if the court is satisfied that they did, then the court will be receptive to arguments about the contents of the contract in such a way that will give effect to the contract.

This decision is also a handy reference in relation to any dispute over an alleged oral contract.  It contains the three essential principles applicable to the existence and terms of the oral contract: the objective test to determine its existence; the industry perspective from which the parties must be assumed to be acting; and the flexibility with which the court will determine the terms of the contract.

See Goldsmith and Heintzman on Canadian Building Contracts, Chapter 1, Parts 1(b)-(c) and 3

Construction Contract  –  Interpretation  –  Oral Contract :

 Copcan Contracting Ltd v. Ashlaur Trading Inc., 2010 BCCA 597

Thomas G. Heintzman O.C., Q.C.                                                                           August 8, 2011

www.constructionlawcanada.com

www.heintzmanadr.com

Tenders in Construction Projects – Which Limitation Period Applies?

What is the limitation period for the commencement of an action arising from a tender in a construction project?

If the owner is a municipality or other public body, does a limitation period in its incorporating legislation apply to the tender?  These were the questions recently faced by the Prince Edward Island Court of Appeal in Central Roadways v. City of Summerside.

In May 2008 the City of Summerside sought tenders for the resurfacing of city streets.  Two bidders, Central Roadways and another bidder, submitted tenders.  Central Roadways’ tender was the lowest, but on June 16, 2008 the City’s Council met and decided to award the contract to the other bidder, and advised Central Roadways the next day.

In November 2008, Central Roadways asked the City why its tender was not accepted and requested a copy of Council meeting minutes of June 16, 2008.  The City replied by letter and provided  a copy of the minutes but the minutes did not disclose any reasons why the other tender was accepted and not the tender of Central Roadways.

On February 20, 2009, Central Roadways commenced an action against the City.  The City brought a motion to dismiss the action on the ground that it was barred by the limitation period in s-s.46 (2) of the City of Summerside Act.

Section 45 and 46(1) of that Act provided that notice was to be given to the City in the case of damage sustained from unsafe conditions, or from nuisances or encumbrances, on City streets or sidewalks.  Section 46(1) then said that, except as provided in S. 46(1), all actions against the City were to be commenced within six months of the cause of action arising.

The City asserted that this limitation period applied to the claim arising from the tender, and the judge who heard the motion agreed.  But the P.E.I Court of Appeal reversed the decision.

The Court of Appeal examined the wording and history of the City of Summerside Act and concluded that the six month limitation period only applied to claims arising from City bylaws or claims relating to unsafe conditions or nuisances and encumbrances on City property.  Even though the word “all” in s. 46(2) was normally all-encompassing, it should not be so interpreted in light of these surrounding circumstances.

The Court of Appeal noted that the limitation period in P.E.I. for claims in contract is six years and that a limitation period of six months is a very different limitation period.  Since the shorter limitation period was found in a statute for the City’s benefit, it should be interpreted against the City in the event of any ambiguity.  The Court said:

“Interpreted to include all causes of action against the City, the very short six-month limitation period would seriously circumscribe the right of a person to commence any action against the City.  This being so, any ambiguity must be resolved in favour of a less restrictive limit on the time within which to commence an action.”

The Court of Appeal held that the claim by Central Roadways was in contract, since it arose from the alleged breach of its contract with the City inherent in its submission of a tender to the City’s invitation.   While there might be good policy reasons for the City to provide very short limitation periods for actions arising from slip and falls or other accidents on City streets,

“there is no valid policy reason why other actions against the City, like an action for breach of contract, should have the time for the commencement thereof limited to a very short six months…If the Legislature is of the mind that there are valid policy reasons for a shorter limitation period for the commencement of such actions against municipalities like the City, then it should express the policy more clearly in the Act  so as to specifically exclude these actions from the scope of the Statute of Limitations.”

This decision contains warnings about limitation periods relating to tenders.

The first warning is that a claim arising from a tender is a claim in contract and must be brought within the limitation period for a contract claim.  In addition, a tort claim relating to the tender must be brought within the limitation period relating to tort claims.

The second warning is this:  look for any limitation period contained in the tender documents. The tender documents may themselves contain a specific and shorter limitation period.  A shorter contractual limitation period may be permitted under the general limitation statute.  Thus, In Ontario, s.22(5) of the Limitations Act, 2002 permits the normal two year limitation period to be shortened in business agreements, but not consumer agreements.

And third, ensure that there are no other statutory limitation periods which may apply to the tender.  In Ontario, that is unlikely since s.19 of the Limitations Act, 2002 states that a statutory provision containing a conflicting limitation period is of no effect unless that provision is set out in the Schedule to the Limitations Act, 2002.  But if there is a limitation provision in another statute which is potentially enforceable, then depending on the origin and nature of that provision, the decision in the Central Roadways case may require that the limitation provision be read against the public body and only enforceable if it clearly applies to the tender.

Tenders – Limitation Period – Construction Contract – Actions – Breach of Contract – 

Central Roadways v. City of Summerside, 2011 PECA 4 (CanLII)  https://bit.ly/jnQhQk